Trade-offs between potential revenue and environmental impacts for refuse-derived fuel production: A simulation study based on the composition of fresh and mining waste in South Tangerang City, Indonesia

Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) is gaining popularity in Indonesia as a promising solution for processing large volumes of municipal solid waste (MSW), extending landfill lifespans, and facilitating both material and thermal recycling. The quantity and quality of RDF are critically dependent on the input waste composition and the selection of materials for RDF production, directly impacting potential revenue from RDF sales and the financial sustainability of RDF projects. This study analysed the composition of fresh waste and landfill mining waste in South Tangerang City, Banten Province, Indonesia to inform strategic RDF production. A comparative simulation examined the potential production quantity, calorific value, expected revenue, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across eight distinct RDF production scenarios, differing in waste source and material selection. A clear trade-off was identified between potential revenues and environmental impacts, specifically GHG emissions, for RDF produced from both fresh and mining waste. Scenarios utilising landfill mining waste yielded the highest expected revenues but also resulted in the highest GHG emissions. For fresh waste RDF, including both organic waste and combustible recyclable waste in the RDF stream, rather than recovering them for separate recycling, was projected to generate higher revenues due to increased production volume and calorific value. These findings offer valuable guidance for RDF producers, off-takers, and policymakers in selecting RDF production strategies that balance quantity, quality, economic viability, and environmental impact.